Vol. 4, No. 4 (2016): Regular Issue

Since the 1990s, Argentina's agriculture suffered great transformations due to the use of GM soybean. This crop has been transferred from the most fertile area of the country, Pampa, to areas with greater environmental fragility like Chaco. The agricultural model is highly dependent on external inputs, and while there is qualitative information about the process called "sojización", quantitative studies of the demand for materials and energy of soybean in Argentina at local level have not yet been done. The objective of this study is to evaluate such demand and determine which inputs are those with higher loading of materials and energy using MFA (Material Flow Analysis) and Embodied Energy Analysis (EEA), respectively. The results indicate that the greatest demand is abiotic mass, and, within it, the loss of topsoil is the most important. The total amount of material inputs required by soybean production was 6.6 kg/kg of soybean. The greatest value is the abiotic mass, with 3.91 kg/kg of soybean, followed by water, with 2.44 kg/kg of soybean. Extrapolating the obtained data in the study area, we can roughly estimate the material and energy consumption in the entire country. For example, agrochemical use by soybean was one third of the total used in Argentina during the analyzed campaign (2009-2010). In terms of embodied energy, each kg of soybean requires 0.02 kg of oil equivalent, i.e. 9.68E+05 J/kg of soybean. According to our results, 25% of energy consumption in the agricultural sector of Argentina is solely due to soybean production. Over the course of recent decades it was shown that the industrial agricultural system, highly dependent on supplies and materials, is not a solution to the problems of food shortages, but rather, it is the cause of many of them, as well as the cause of significant impacts on the environment and humans.

Since the 1990s, Argentina's agriculture suffered great transformations due to the use of GM soybean. This crop has been transferred from the most fertile area of the country, Pampa, to areas with greater environmental fragility like Chaco. The agricultural model is highly dependent on external inputs, and while there is qualitative information about the process called "sojización", quantitative studies of the demand for materials and energy of soybean in Argentina at local level have not yet been done. The objective of this study is to evaluate such demand and determine which inputs are those with higher loading of materials and energy using MFA (Material Flow Analysis) and Embodied Energy Analysis (EEA), respectively. The results indicate that the greatest demand is abiotic mass, and, within it, the loss of topsoil is the most important. The total amount of material inputs required by soybean production was 6.6 kg/kg of soybean. The greatest value is the abiotic mass, with 3.91 kg/kg of soybean, followed by water, with 2.44 kg/kg of soybean. Extrapolating the obtained data in the study area, we can roughly estimate the material and energy consumption in the entire country. For example, agrochemical use by soybean was one third of the total used in Argentina during the analyzed campaign (2009-2010). In terms of embodied energy, each kg of soybean requires 0.02 kg of oil equivalent, i.e. 9.68E+05 J/kg of soybean. According to our results, 25% of energy consumption in the agricultural sector of Argentina is solely due to soybean production. Over the course of recent decades it was shown that the industrial agricultural system, highly dependent on supplies and materials, is not a solution to the problems of food shortages, but rather, it is the cause of many of them, as well as the cause of significant impacts on the environment and humans.

After the Industrial Revolution the agricultural sector was one of the most transformed. The activity releases CO2 and generates a change in land use, advancing on ecosystems with native vegetation, which function as carbon sinks. The model of industrial agriculture is highly dependent on inputs in the form of materials and energy, mainly fossil fuels but there are other hidden constraints that rely on the environmental quality of resources used and the extent of downstream impacts generated by their use in a process, that do not emerge clearly from investigating only material and commercial energy. As a consequence, additional investigation with alternative approaches, like emergy and emission assessment, is needed. In this article the analysis focuses on the emergy assessment and pollutant emissions by soybean production in two Argentine localities with environmental differences, one in the province of Buenos Aires (Rojas) and the other in the Chaco province (Charata). We used an upstream method (Emergy Accounting) and a downstream method (CML2 baseline 2000). Both sites show Renewability smaller than 35%. The total amount of CO2eq emitted in Charata is 0.80 ton/ha/yr and 0.81 ton/ha/yr in Rojas. However, the local conditions, the impact of industrial agriculture is very high. In Chaco region, possible regulations that establish the afforestation of certain areas around soybean crops should be analyzed, to operate not only as carbon sinks but also as barriers for agrochemical drift.

After the Industrial Revolution the agricultural sector was one of the most transformed. The activity releases CO2 and generates a change in land use, advancing on ecosystems with native vegetation, which function as carbon sinks. The model of industrial agriculture is highly dependent on inputs in the form of materials and energy, mainly fossil fuels but there are other hidden constraints that rely on the environmental quality of resources used and the extent of downstream impacts generated by their use in a process, that do not emerge clearly from investigating only material and commercial energy. As a consequence, additional investigation with alternative approaches, like emergy and emission assessment, is needed. In this article the analysis focuses on the emergy assessment and pollutant emissions by soybean production in two Argentine localities with environmental differences, one in the province of Buenos Aires (Rojas) and the other in the Chaco province (Charata). We used an upstream method (Emergy Accounting) and a downstream method (CML2 baseline 2000). Both sites show Renewability smaller than 35%. The total amount of CO2eq emitted in Charata is 0.80 ton/ha/yr and 0.81 ton/ha/yr in Rojas. However, the local conditions, the impact of industrial agriculture is very high. In Chaco region, possible regulations that establish the afforestation of certain areas around soybean crops should be analyzed, to operate not only as carbon sinks but also as barriers for agrochemical drift.

Milk corresponds to 20% of the Brazilian agribusiness GDP and its production is concentrated at Minas Gerais State. Different milk production systems co-exist in this region, which results in different sustainability performance and call for a multi-criteria analysis to subsidize decisions towards a regional milk production planning. This work uses the Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) to hierarchize milk production systems as for their sustainability. A cluster analysis considering 92 milk producers identified five distinct production systems: G1, G2, G3, G4, and G5. Social, economic, and environmental indices are calculated and used in the AHP to prioritize sustainability according to the decision-maker’s egalitarian, or hierarchical, or individualist profiles. Results indicate that system G1 features higher priority degree (higher sustainability) for all three profiles compared to other systems assessed, reaching 27% for the egalitarian, 31% for the hierarchical, and 31% for the individualist profiles. The worst performances were fared by system G4 in the egalitarian (12%), and hierarchical (13%), and by system G3 in the individualist profile (10%). Numbers could be considered by decision makers in order to subsidize a strategic planning towards a sustainable regional milk production, whereby a given system could be politically, technologically, and economically prioritized in detriment of another. Notwithstanding, the objective approach discussed in defining criteria and their weights could be useful in future studies related to a hierarchization of sustainability of any production system in different regions.

Milk corresponds to 20% of the Brazilian agribusiness GDP and its production is concentrated at Minas Gerais State. Different milk production systems co-exist in this region, which results in different sustainability performance and call for a multi-criteria analysis to subsidize decisions towards a regional milk production planning. This work uses the Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) to hierarchize milk production systems as for their sustainability. A cluster analysis considering 92 milk producers identified five distinct production systems: G1, G2, G3, G4, and G5. Social, economic, and environmental indices are calculated and used in the AHP to prioritize sustainability according to the decision-maker’s egalitarian, or hierarchical, or individualist profiles. Results indicate that system G1 features higher priority degree (higher sustainability) for all three profiles compared to other systems assessed, reaching 27% for the egalitarian, 31% for the hierarchical, and 31% for the individualist profiles. The worst performances were fared by system G4 in the egalitarian (12%), and hierarchical (13%), and by system G3 in the individualist profile (10%). Numbers could be considered by decision makers in order to subsidize a strategic planning towards a sustainable regional milk production, whereby a given system could be politically, technologically, and economically prioritized in detriment of another. Notwithstanding, the objective approach discussed in defining criteria and their weights could be useful in future studies related to a hierarchization of sustainability of any production system in different regions.

This paper introduces the energy constraints as the tenth existing Planetary Boundary (PB hereafter) for defining a safe operating space for humanity on Earth. Energy limitations, in fact, follow all the technical requirements, that are applied to all the existing PBs. After discussing about the specific power both of some planetary components and of some elements of the biosphere, the evolution of human civilization is discussed, considering its additive specific power. This is done in order to show the existing power shift originated by the industrialization and, subsequently, within the Anthropocene. The historical trend of Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) for human civilization, expressed in terms of power and measured in units of [W], follow within the discussion. Consequently, both a lower preliminary limit (identified with the preindustrial TPES, according to the PB framework), and an upper threshold are identified. The latter is related to the total appropriation of the Net Primary Production (NPP). Finally, the foreseen TPES for the year 2050 is discussed under three different scenarios. Different “quality” goals are defined, according to different existing low-carbon scenarios, which are related to a sufficiency perspective for humanity. Such a transition is of paramount importance since it will enable humanity to remain into a safe operating space within the biosphere. While the paths to reach such an objective go beyond the scope of this paper, it is anyway remarked that both a socio-economic transition and policy efforts are necessary in order to involve the population by means of well-planned bottom-up actions.

This paper introduces the energy constraints as the tenth existing Planetary Boundary (PB hereafter) for defining a safe operating space for humanity on Earth. Energy limitations, in fact, follow all the technical requirements, that are applied to all the existing PBs. After discussing about the specific power both of some planetary components and of some elements of the biosphere, the evolution of human civilization is discussed, considering its additive specific power. This is done in order to show the existing power shift originated by the industrialization and, subsequently, within the Anthropocene. The historical trend of Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) for human civilization, expressed in terms of power and measured in units of [W], follow within the discussion. Consequently, both a lower preliminary limit (identified with the preindustrial TPES, according to the PB framework), and an upper threshold are identified. The latter is related to the total appropriation of the Net Primary Production (NPP). Finally, the foreseen TPES for the year 2050 is discussed under three different scenarios. Different “quality” goals are defined, according to different existing low-carbon scenarios, which are related to a sufficiency perspective for humanity. Such a transition is of paramount importance since it will enable humanity to remain into a safe operating space within the biosphere. While the paths to reach such an objective go beyond the scope of this paper, it is anyway remarked that both a socio-economic transition and policy efforts are necessary in order to involve the population by means of well-planned bottom-up actions.

This paper presents an energy characterisation framework that is based on environmental and carbon management accounting principles and practices that promote green growth in societies. Primary data was collected through survey questionnaires, observation checklists, energy account records, light meters and thermometers. In addition, an exploratory literature analysis was done. The collected data was analysed through descriptive and correlation statistics, aimed at testing the theoretically developed energy saving characterisation framework. The paper revealed that the use of one or two energy saving indicators as a base for characterising services and institutions as being energy saving is misleading. Thus, the paper concludes that energy saving characterisation should be based on a confirmed reduction of energy demand, cost and carbon footprint. However, the paper points out that the selection of energy saving technologies and characterisation of activities as energy saving method can be based on the ability of such an activity to reduce one or more of the three indicators. Ultimately, the adopted framework integrates environmental and carbon management accounting principles and practices.

This paper presents an energy characterisation framework that is based on environmental and carbon management accounting principles and practices that promote green growth in societies. Primary data was collected through survey questionnaires, observation checklists, energy account records, light meters and thermometers. In addition, an exploratory literature analysis was done. The collected data was analysed through descriptive and correlation statistics, aimed at testing the theoretically developed energy saving characterisation framework. The paper revealed that the use of one or two energy saving indicators as a base for characterising services and institutions as being energy saving is misleading. Thus, the paper concludes that energy saving characterisation should be based on a confirmed reduction of energy demand, cost and carbon footprint. However, the paper points out that the selection of energy saving technologies and characterisation of activities as energy saving method can be based on the ability of such an activity to reduce one or more of the three indicators. Ultimately, the adopted framework integrates environmental and carbon management accounting principles and practices.

To deal with the global climate change and energy shortage, nuclear power has been widely used all over the world for its low carbon emission and economic cost. Nowadays, hundreds of nuclear power plants have been constructed in many countries. However, the operation of them discharged radioactive effluents and non-radioactive wastewater into nearby water bodies, which makes wastewater management policies for such plants crucial. The objective of this study is to summarize laws, regulations and technical standards of major countries with nuclear power plants, and advance wastewater management of nuclear power plants for China. This article summarized the laws, regulations and technical standards of wastewater management for the plants in major countries with nuclear power plants as well as International Atomic Energy Agency. The management in China, including management process, authorities, public participation as well as emergency system, was also proposed considering that plenty of coastal nuclear power plants had been built, and several inland ones were taken into account. Furthermore, case study was developed for Tianwan nuclear power plant which lied in East Coast of China and had been operated for ten years. The results may provide the managers of nuclear power plants around the world a policy reference and a decision support in the field of wastewater management.

To deal with the global climate change and energy shortage, nuclear power has been widely used all over the world for its low carbon emission and economic cost. Nowadays, hundreds of nuclear power plants have been constructed in many countries. However, the operation of them discharged radioactive effluents and non-radioactive wastewater into nearby water bodies, which makes wastewater management policies for such plants crucial. The objective of this study is to summarize laws, regulations and technical standards of major countries with nuclear power plants, and advance wastewater management of nuclear power plants for China. This article summarized the laws, regulations and technical standards of wastewater management for the plants in major countries with nuclear power plants as well as International Atomic Energy Agency. The management in China, including management process, authorities, public participation as well as emergency system, was also proposed considering that plenty of coastal nuclear power plants had been built, and several inland ones were taken into account. Furthermore, case study was developed for Tianwan nuclear power plant which lied in East Coast of China and had been operated for ten years. The results may provide the managers of nuclear power plants around the world a policy reference and a decision support in the field of wastewater management.